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There are four recognised Church of Scotland congregations for the Deaf: Albany Deaf Church in Edinburgh, St John's Church for Deaf People in Aberdeen, John Ross Memorial Church for Deaf People in Glasgow and the Ayrshire Mission to the Deaf in Kilmarnock. These congregations cover all of Scotland but are experiencing a yearly decrease in size.
In this essay, I will critically examine the future of Deaf Churches in Scotland within the current context of institutional church decline and increasing social inclusion. I will explore the history, function, and future of Deaf churches in Scotland.
The Deaf churches of the Church of Scotland are experiencing similar challenges to other churches, including declining numbers, ageing congregations, limited funding, people no longer finding the relevance of the church in their lives, and a shortage of ordained ministers. However, they face additional obstacles, such as a lack of preachers who can communicate through British Sign Language (BSL) or interpreters who specialise in Christian signs. Moreover, there is a general lack of understanding of Deaf culture within the wider church and a greater desire for inclusion but in the hearing way.
Historically, schools for the Deaf, like many Scottish schools, were started and run by Christian missionaries[1] and the church. Thomas Braidwood founded the Braidwood Academy, the world’s first school for the Deaf, in Edinburgh in 1760. Braidwood Academy focused on Oralism - teaching the pupils to speak and read lips.[2] The school also taught Manualism – using BSL signs for some lessons. These schools provided religious education to the Deaf and offered prayer meetings for Deaf adults.
On the 13th of June 1830, the first congregation for Deaf adults met in a small room in Lady Stairs Close in Edinburgh[3]. The group was founded by four Deaf men: – Matthew Robert Burns[4], Alexander Blackwood[5], Walter Geikie[6] and Joseph Turner[7]. All these men advocated for the Deaf culture, promoting the idea that the Deaf community could manage themselves and not depend on charity. The purpose of establishing this church was to create a space where Deaf individuals could gather for prayer and social events within their own culture using sign language. The mid-nineteenth-century Deaf church was ecumenical, led by religious Deaf men who taught and led worship for Deaf congregations. The Edinburgh evangelical movement was a vital step forward for the Deaf community, allowing them to express their cultural ideas without any external influence from the hearing community.
The Deaf church changed after the 1880 Milan Conference for Deaf Educators[8]. During the conference, 164 delegates attended, among whom only one was Deaf. The conference brought about a significant change in the education of the Deaf community, as it shifted the teaching approach from Manualism to Oralism. However, this change harmed future generations of Deaf individuals. By focusing on lipreading and oral speech, less time was spent on reading, writing, and mathematics. The younger generation of Deaf lacked signing skills, leading to increased separation from older generations. Excluding sign language from Deaf education helped to promote the misconception that sign language is a primitive form of communication[9] and was inadequate for discussing God or theology. These misconceptions were based on St Augustine's[10] declaration that the Deaf could have no faith since 'faith cometh by hearing only.’[11] Both Saint Jerome[12] and Martin Luther[13] have reflected on this statement[14] and the implication of people being spiritually deaf rather than physically Deaf. It was believed that sign language contained major grammatical flaws.[15] This led to a belief that sign language could not convey the abstract concepts used within religious services. The Milan conference led to the negative perception of sign language, with Deaf people seen as inferior and requiring Christian benevolence.
The Deaf church after 1880 changed from what Hannah describes as ‘the era of the missioners ’ to the ‘era of the chaplains’.[16] The era of missionaries began with an explosion of new Deaf churches, funded mainly by church and welfare organisations. These churches primarily focused on welfare work, with opportunities for worshipping also included. During that period, the Victorian mindset believed that religion was beneficial for the poor and underprivileged. The Deaf mission still had some lay Deaf preachers but was mainly run by local businessmen who saw it as their Christian responsibility to help the less well-off. This led to the perception that the Deaf needed charity and help, unable to do things themselves. During the era of missioners, the focus of the church shifted from teaching and evangelising to the Deaf community to a mission of saving the souls of poor individuals so that they could attain the riches of heaven.
Fergusson argues that the decline of Presbyterian society and the increasing gap between church and state are significant factors in the Church's declining numbers.[17] This seems particularly true within the Deaf church with the passing of the 1948 National Assistance Act. This changed the purpose of Deaf churches, bringing in the “era of chaplains”. The Act assigned the responsibility of caring for the Deaf to the local authority, making many charities and missions obsolete. This caused a decrease in funding for these organisations, forcing them to either shut down or merge with a specific denomination of an established church and abide by its rules and regulations. Missions who opted to become members of the Church of Scotland were required to comply with the guidelines and regulations set forth by its general assembly. One advantage of joining the Church of Scotland was that Deaf lay preachers were permitted to preach from the pulpits, which was not the case for other denominations like the Church of England.[18] Even with this provision, the number of Deaf preachers was slowly replaced by (usually hearing) chaplains. This means that today, our Deaf churches are no longer Deaf churches run by the Deaf with Deaf Culture at their centre but more churches for the Deaf with hearing culture at their centre.
Different models of Deaf church have been suggested[19]. The most common one is integrating the Deaf into a hearing church by providing an interpreter to interpret the service. The arguments for this model are that it is cheaper than employing a minister for the Deaf who can use BSL, would bring more people into the hearing church, and would be seen as being inclusive. This may be the easiest option, but I would argue that for the Deaf community, it is inappropriate. The challenge is finding an interpreter competent enough in church signs and theology to convey the intended meaning.[20] Even with a skilled interpreter, it can be challenging to interpret sermons due to their grammar and cultural aspects. Interpretations can become Sign Supported English (SSE)[21] without a proficient interpreter. This approach makes it harder for the Deaf community to understand the message because it relies on translating words one by one instead of using the grammatical structure of BSL. As British Sign Language (BSL) is a visual language, reading biblical texts can be challenging due to its grammatical structure and use of metaphors.[22] This model may provide a simple solution to the lack of BSL-trained ministers but may not fully enable the Deaf congregation to connect with God during worship.
According to Roxburgh, a successful model for increasing participation in hearing places of worship seems to be one where “each congregation has a clear sense of its mission and has sought and its own unique way to share the good news of God's love in appropriate contextual forms.”[23] McDonald argues in his book that changes are required within the Church of Scotland to allow new spiritual insights.[24] This would mean redefining what a church is and making it more accessible to the Deaf. These changes would enable the Deaf to develop their theologies and own liturgy. This is starting to happen in some denominations that have rewritten the Eucharistic prayer[25] and the Apostle's Creed.[26] Within the Church of Scotland, the largest congregation of Deaf people is in Aberdeen, where the only Deaf minister ordained by the Church of Scotland leads.[27] To replicate this model, it is essential to provide opportunities for the Deaf community to attend courses in Leading worship, Bible classes and church management. Only by providing the tools for the Deaf community to take ownership of their worship and the space to explore their theologies[28] will the Deaf church be able to give the space for Deaf people to worship God.
In conclusion, the future of the Deaf church may be found in its past. Specifically, we can look at the pre-1880 Deaf church. During that time, the church was a place where Deaf culture was celebrated. In this place, the Deaf community had the opportunity to teach and learn from each other. They felt valued for their unique identities rather than being solely defined by their deafness. The Bible and its teachings were shared with the Deaf community in their own language, which was rich and fully expressive. This approach honoured their unique cultural perspectives and ways of understanding. However, to return to this place, there needs to be support to allow Deaf people access to the Bible and to be equipped with the knowledge and confidence to spread the word of God in their way.
Bibliography and References
Behenna, Gill, Baby Sheep on King’s Big Chair? (or... Lamb of God on the Throne) Sign Language Interpreting in Christian Settings. Signs of God, 2000 Revised 2003, 2006
BSL Bible, accessed December 3 2023, https://bslbible.org.uk/
Cain, Andrew, trans. Romans 1:19–20; Jerome, Commentary on Galatians, in (Washington, 2010)
Eucharistic Prayer for the Deaf, Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales, May 23, 1992
Fergusson, David, The Future of the Church, Theology in Scotland, Occasional Paper no. 2 March 1977
Gallaudet, E. M. “THE MILAN CONVENTION.” American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb 26, no. 1 (1881): 1–16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44461114.
Griffiths, Christopher, ‘The deaf child – His problems and education’ in Church Mission to the Deaf and Dumb of Walsall’, (Wednesbury and Mid-Staffordshire, Annual Report, no. 76, 1963).
Jackson, Peter W., and Raymond Lee (eds), Deaf Lives: Deaf people in history (Feltham: British Deaf History Society Publications, 2001).
Jungkuntz, R, trans. Martin Luther, ‘Lectures on Galatians, 1519’, in Luther’s Works: American Edition, xxvii, reprinted in Brock and Swinton, Disability in the Christian Tradition.
Lawrence, Rev. Marshall, Building Deaf Ministries That Work, Practical Advice from Experienced Deaf Pastors and Church Planters, Silent Blessings Deaf Ministries 2019.
Lewis, Hannah, Revd Dr. Deaf Liberation Theology (Explorations in Practical, Pastoral and Empirical Theology) Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Kindle Edition.
Macdonald, Finlay J., Confidence in a changing Church (Edinburgh: St Andrews Press, 2004)
Morris, Wayne, Theology without Words. (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing), 2008,
Oates, Rosamund, ‘Speaking in Hands: Early Modern Preaching and Signed Languages for the Deaf’, Past & Present, Volume 256, Issue 1, August 2022, accessed December 5, 2023, doi.org:10.1093
Owen, Andrews, Not Hearers Only. (Wakeman Trust, London, 2007)
Power, Des. “Googling ‘Deaf’: Deafness in the World’s English-Language Press.” American Annals of the Deaf 151, no. 5 (2006): 513–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26234413.
Roxburgh Kenneth, ‘Growth Amidst Decline: Edinburgh’s Churches and Scottish Culture’ in David Goodhew (ed), Church Growth in Britian:1980 to the Present (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012)
Sampley, DeAnn, A Guide to Deaf Ministry (Zondervan Publishing House, Michigan 1990)
‘The Deaf of Bonnie Scotland: The modern Athens’ in British Deaf Times, I/8 (1904)
Voice, ‘Mary Goes the Distance on her Spiritual Journey’ accessed December 3, 2023, https://www.abdn.ac.uk/stories/voice21/mary-whittaker/
Watson, Thomas J, A History of Deaf Education in Scotland 1760-1939 ( Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1949)
[1] Lewis, Hannah, Revd Dr., Deaf Liberation Theology (Explorations in Practical, Pastoral and Empirical Theology) (Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Kindle Edition). 97
[2] Watson, Thomas J., A History of Deaf Education in Scotland 1760-1939 (Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1949) 17
[3] Jackson, Peter W., and Raymond Lee (eds), Deaf Lives: Deaf people in history (Feltham: British Deaf History Society Publications, 2001). 33
[4] Jackson, Peter W., and Raymond Lee (eds), Deaf Lives, 33
[5] Jackson, Peter W., and Raymond Lee (eds), Deaf Lives, 22
[6] Jackson, Peter W., and Raymond Lee (eds), Deaf Lives, 72
[7] Jackson, Peter W., and Raymond Lee (eds), Deaf Lives, 190
[8] Gallaudet, E. M., “THE MILAN CONVENTION.” American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb 26, no. 1 (1881): 1–16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44461114.
[9] Griffiths, Christopher, ‘The deaf child – His problems and education’ in Church Mission to the Deaf and Dumb of Walsall’, (Wednesbury and Mid-Staffordshire, Annual Report, no. 76, 1963).
[10] Power, Des. “Googling ‘Deaf’: Deafness in the World’s English-Language Press.” American Annals of the Deaf 151, no. 5 (2006): 513–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26234413.
[11] Romans 10:17
[12] Cain, Andrew, trans. Romans 1:19–20; Jerome, Commentary on Galatians, (Washington, 2010), 121-2.
[13] Jungkuntz, R,trans,. Martin Luther, ‘Lectures on Galatians, 1519’, in Luther’s Works: American Edition, xxvii, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan, reprinted in Brock and Swinton, Disability in the Christian Tradition, 205–6.
[14] Rosamund Oates, ‘Speaking in Hands: Early Modern Preaching and Signed Languages for the Deaf’, Past & Present, Volume 256, Issue 1, August 2022, accessed May 5, 2023, doi.org:10.1093, 61
[15] Griffiths, Christopher, ‘The deaf child – His problems and education’ in Church Mission to the Deaf and Dumb of Walsall’, (Wednesbury and Mid-Staffordshire, Annual Report, no. 76, 1963).
[16] Lewis, Hannah, Revd Dr. Deaf Liberation Theology (Explorations in Practical, Pastoral and Empirical Theology) Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Kindle Edition. 49
[17] Fergusson, David, The Future of the Church, Theology in Scotland, Occasional Paper no. 2 March 1977
[18] ‘The Deaf of Bonnie Scotland: The modern Athens’ in British Deaf Times, I/8 (1904): 145–7.
[19] Lawrence, Rev. Marshall Building Deaf Ministries That Work, Practical Advice from Experienced Deaf Pastors and Church Planters Silent (Blessings Deaf Ministries 2019), 6
[20] Behenna, Gill, Baby Sheep on King’s Big Chair? (or... Lamb of God on the Throne) Sign Language Interpreting in Christian Settings. Signs of God accessed December 1, 2023,
[21] Owen, Andrews, Not Hearers Only. (Wakeman Trust, London, 2007) 68
[22] BSL Bible, accessed December 3 2023, https://bslbible.org.uk/
[23] Roxburgh Kenneth, ‘Growth Amidst Decline: Edinburgh’s Churches and Scottish Culture’ in David Goodhew (ed), Church Growth in Britian:1980 to the Present (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012)
[24] Macdonald, Finlay J., Confidence in a changing Church (Edinburgh: St Andrews Press, 2004)
[25] Eucharistic Prayer for the Deaf, Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales, May 23, 1992
[26] Lewis, Deaf Liberation Theology. 183
[27] ‘Mary Goes the Distance on her Spiritual Journey’ accessed December 3, 2023,
https://www.abdn.ac.uk/stories/voice21/mary-whittaker/
[28] Morris, Wayne, Theology without Words. (Burlington: Publishing), 2008, 90