Katrona Templeton
Celebrating the Eucharist is a fundamental practice of the Church of Scotland. It represents the sacrament of God’s grace and unconditional love. However, this can be a ritual of exclusion and degradation for people with disabilities.[1]
In this essay, I will take a closer look at the sacrament of communion within Deaf churches, focusing on the Church of Scotland. Our exploration will centre on theological perspectives regarding the ability of Deaf individuals to embrace Christianity and access the Word of God fully. I will address the misconception that the use of sign language indicates lower intelligence and an inability to comprehend the concept of God and the understanding of the Eucharist. Furthermore, we will delve into the challenges of using British Sign Language (BSL) to communicate the communion liturgy and the issues faced by non-BSL users who rely on interpreters. Additionally, I will examine the role of BSL in communion and the impact of BSL interpreters on the sacrament, particularly their involvement in the Epiclesis prayer.
Throughout history, various arguments have been presented to support the idea that sign language is inadequate for discussing God or theology. One of these arguments is based on Saint Paul’s interpretation of Romans 10:17: “So then faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God.” In 1519, Martin Luther addressed this concern by examining Saint Jerome’s concept of ‘ears of the soul.’ Jerome had reflected on the question, ‘If faith comes by hearing, how can people born deaf become Christians?’[2] Martin Luther, during a sermon on Galatians, wrote, ‘I like this argument very much’ because ‘the Word of God is not heard even among adults and those who hear unless the Spirit promotes growth inwardly’. These thoughts impacted all liturgy, including communion in the Deaf and Hearing church. Luther stated, ‘If preaching does not infuse the spirit, then he who hears does not differ at all from one who is deaf’.[3] Throughout the centuries, the distinction between physical hearing and Deafness has played a significant role in Protestant teachings on effective listening and delivery of the Word.
The establishment of Deaf churches aimed to introduce the word of God to the Deaf community and improve their quality of life. Unfortunately, this led to the belief that Deaf individuals were helpless and incapable of caring for themselves, thus requiring Christian charity. In the past, their use of crude gestures as a means of communication often resulted in them being viewed as semi-savage. During the nineteenth century, Darwin’s theories of evolution introduced the notion that sign language was a less evolved form of communication when compared to spoken language[4] and, therefore, its users were less evolved. During the 1930s, George Firth, a chaplain for the Deaf, described how individuals who solely communicated through sign language were derogatorily referred to as “dummies.”[5] Some assumed that such individuals could not comprehend religious concepts or participate in religious rituals, such as the Eucharist, where symbolic representations of God’s grace are presented.
There was a prevalent belief that sign language contained major grammatical flaws, attributed to a lack of trust among Deaf educators.[6] Despite linguists confirming that BSL is a genuine language capable of expressing ideas on par with English, there remained a belief that it needed to be improved for conveying abstract concepts commonly used in religious services. During the 1880 Milan conference for educators of the Deaf, prominent British oralist Thomas Arnold declared, ‘No doubt signs are often animated and picturesque, but they are absolutely inadequate for abstraction’. For a long time, pastors and ministers believed that British Sign Language could not effectively communicate the abstract concepts and liturgy of the church. It took until the thirteenth century for the Catholic Church[7] and the seventeenth century for Churches in England[8] to finally allow Deaf individuals to participate in the Eucharist. Historical records show that in 1648, Deaf individuals participated in the Eucharist using sign language, indicating a growing acknowledgement of sign language as a valid substitute for spoken language.[9] It has been argued, the Church in England, introducing a system of standardised gestures, led to a unified sign language influenced by Protestant spirituality.[10]
The church has been instrumental in acknowledging sign language as a valid means of communication and recognising the capability of Deaf individuals to comprehend and articulate abstract theological concepts. The Deaf community currently experiences financial constraints and difficulty finding skilled interpreters with expertise in interpreting complex Christian concepts related to the Eucharist and well-versed in different denominational signs. These obstacles hinder the community’s access to God’s grace. Many people believe that BSL is sign-supported English (SSE), which involves mimicking English word-for-word rather than a sophisticated and nuanced form of communication that incorporates body language, facial expressions, hand gestures and has its own grammar and regional variations. It may surprise some that British Sign Language (BSL) is the primary language used by the Deaf community, rather than English, which has repercussions when reading from the Bible readings,[11] again separating the Deaf and God.
The Church of Scotland is currently experiencing a shortage of proficient ministers in British Sign Language (BSL). This poses a challenge for the Deaf community to connect with God through worship and receive sacraments because only two ordained BSL ministers are available to serve the entire country. Consequently, Deaf worshippers must attend hearing churches with services conducted by a chaplain or reader in spoken English with an interpreter present. Regarding communion service, translating liturgy can pose a challenge due to the often complex and ornate language. Deaf individuals, on the other hand, prefer a more direct form of communication. While specialist Christian signs exist in BSL vocabulary, the main difficulty in translating liturgy lies in the interpreter’s lack of foundation in Christian theology and how it aligns with Deaf culture.[12] Sadly, cultural aspects of sign language are rarely incorporated into these services and teachings are kept at a fundamental level. Consequently, Deaf individuals often cannot fully engage with God’s word and connect with Him through the sacraments. It can be argued that Western theology focuses primarily on written text, whereas Deaf theology is more interactive and dynamic. It does not rely on people reading the same static words but on the interaction of Deaf people telling the story of Jesus through their interpretations and cultural bias, therefore bringing a new life to each telling of the Word.
As a member of the Deaf church, I have observed that the Eucharist’s vital significance lies in fostering an inclusive and hospitable community where all are welcome to partake in God’s table. This value is not merely discussed during quarterly ritual gatherings but is actively embraced as a way of life.[13] Just like the sharing of the Word, the church’s actions are done in remembrance of Christ, giving a living representation of what it means to be Christian. These churches warmly embrace individuals fluent in sign language and eager to participate in worship within the context of Deaf culture. Moreover, the Deaf community is incredibly patient and encouraging towards those who may encounter difficulties, providing unwavering support at every step. This sense of inclusivity is a cornerstone of the ecclesiology of Deaf churches.[14]
One part of the communion liturgy is the Eucharist prayer. This is where the celebrant calls down the Holy Spirit through the Epiclesis, setting aside the bread and wine as symbols of God’s grace. John Knox believed that active participation in the service[15], rather than the Epiclesis, set the elements aside for use in communion. This viewpoint was later modified so the authority of an ordained minister of the Word was required to perform the epiclesis in some form in accordance with the teachings of the Westminster Confession.[16]
In England and Wales, the Catholic Church has composed a Eucharistic Prayer specifically intended for use in gatherings of the Deaf. It is imperative that the celebrant personally signs the prayer, and it must only be used with being signed. Additionally, the celebrant must speak all the words while signing but can observe or exclude liturgical gestures as appropriate and feasible based on the situation.[17] This prayer is designed to help the Deaf congregation focus on the celebrant and the visual elements of the sacrament rather than the interpreter. The prayer is written in a way compatible with BSL and emphasises the beauty of BSL as a means of communication and communion with God. This hopefully connects the participants more fully to the Mass and enables them to draw closer to God in their language.[18]
The Church of Scotland does not have an equivalent Eucharist prayer. Some may argue that there are noticeable theological differences concerning the sacrament between the reformed Church and the Roman Catholic Church, particularly regarding the Epiclesis. Within the Church of Scotland’s Book of Common Order, the second communion form lacks a written epiclesis, whereas the Catholic Mass must adhere to a prescribed structure of liturgy. The Roman Catholic Church believes in the transubstantiation of the elements. At the same time, the reformed Church holds varying views, ranging from symbolic memorialism to symbolic instrumentalism, with some adherents taking a middle ground on symbolic parallelism.[19] In the reformed church, the celebrant has more flexibility in administering communion due to these varying views. When reflecting on creative communion, Roddy Hamilton, a minister of the Church of Scotland, believes that simply saying ‘This is my body’ is enough to differentiate the elements. Additionally, he argues that any action or statement that acknowledges the sacredness of the time, place, and elements, and recognises the presence of heaven at that moment, is sufficient.[20] This freedom of expression would make it hard to have a standard signed prayer for the Deaf that could be used in any communion setting but gives more freedom for the Deaf to develop their sacramental theology.
In summary, the progress of BSL and the value that Deaf individuals hold in our community has grown along with the advancement of the Deaf church. BSL is now widely recognised as a fully developed language with a diverse vocabulary and proper grammatical structure that allows for expressing ideas related to God and the symbolic language used in communion liturgy. However, the Deaf Christian community still faces significant challenges, including a lack of funding, insufficient representation of Deaf individuals in leadership positions, and a shortage of specialised Christian BSL interpreters.
The Church of Scotland’s theological flexibility permits the BSL interruption of communion and the Eucharistic prayer, with the interpreter taking on the celebrant’s voice as Aaron did for Moses. For optimal communication with the Deaf, having a Christian interpreter or a religious signing specialist who fully understands BSL would be beneficial. Training those administering communion with basic sign language phrases such as “This is my body broken for you” would be helpful. These minor adjustments would make the sacrament, emphasising God’s grace and acceptance of all to His table, more accessible to those who prefer communicating through BSL.
Deaf churches centre their ecclesiology around the Eucharist by remembering Jesus through the act of acceptance to others, making it a vital aspect of their theological approach. These churches welcome individuals from diverse backgrounds, creating a welcoming environment that is difficult to come across in traditional hearing churches.
In conclusion, Hearing churches have much to gain from studying the theological approach of Deaf churches towards the Bible and communion. Deaf churches excel in embodying the Eucharist’s values and sharing the Word’s transformative power with others. Hearing churches could benefit significantly from adopting similar practices. Hearing churches have much to gain from studying the theological approach of Deaf churches towards the Bible and communion. Deaf churches excel in embodying the Eucharist’s values and sharing the Word’s transformative power in a way that lets it live and change with time.
Bibliography and References
Behenna, Gill, Baby Sheep on King’s Big Chair? (or… Lamb of God on the Throne) Sign Language Interpreting in Christian Settings. Signs of God, accessed April 13, 2023, www.signsofgod.org.uk.
Bulwer, John, Philocophus: or, The Deafe and Dumbe Mans Friend London, 1648
Church of Scotland Act V 2000 CONSOLIDATING ACT ANENT THE SACRAMENTS (AS AMENDED BY ACT IX 2003), Edinburgh, 20th May 2000, Session 1
Church of Scotland, Together at the Table. Edinburgh, 2020
de Saint-Loup, A. (1996). A History of Misunderstandings: The History of the Deaf. Diogenes, 44(175), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/039219219604417502
Eiesland Nancy L, The Disabled God Toward a Liberatory Theology of Disability. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994
Eucharistic Prayer for the Deaf, Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales, May 23, 1992
Eucharistic Prayer for the Deaf Notes, Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales, May 23, 1992
Griffiths, Christopher, ‘The deaf child – His problems and education’ Church Mission to the Deaf and Dumb of
Walsall’, Wednesbury and Mid-Staffordshire, Annual Report, no. 76, 1963.
Hamilton, Roddy, Communion: Beyond Common Order, Minister at Abbotsford Church, Clydebank
Roddy Hamilton, Epiclesis: A Way of Life, Theology in Scotland, vol, XV, no2 (2008)
Lewis, Hannah, Deaf Liberation Theology. New York: Ashgate Publishing, 2016
Morris, Wayne, Theology without Words. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing, 2008
Nimmo, Paul, The Eucharist in post-Reformation Scotland: A theological tale of harmony and diversity, King’s College, University of Aberdeen
Oates, Rosamund, ‘Speaking in Hands: Early Modern Preaching and Signed Languages for the Deaf’, Past & Present, Volume 256, Issue 1, August 2022, accessed May 5, 2023, doi.org:10.1093
Romans 1:19–20; Jerome, Commentary on Galatians, trans. Andrew Cain (Washington, 2010), 121–2; Martin Luther,
‘Lectures on Galatians, 1519’, trans. R. Jungkuntz, in Luther’s Works: American Edition, xxvii, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan, reprinted in Brock and Swinton, Disability in the Christian Tradition, Deaf Liberation
[1] Nancy L Eiesland, The Disabled God Toward a Liberatory Theology of Disability. (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994), 112
[2] Rosamund Oates, ‘Speaking in Hands: Early Modern Preaching and Signed Languages for the Deaf’, Past & Present, Volume 256, Issue 1, August 2022, accessed May 5, 2023, doi.org:10.1093, 61
[3] Romans 1:19–20; Jerome, Commentary on Galatians, trans. Andrew Cain (Washington, 2010), 121–2; Martin Luther, ‘Lectures on Galatians, 1519’, trans. R. Jungkuntz, in Luther’s Works: American Edition, xxvii, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan, reprinted in Brock and Swinton, Disability in the Christian Tradition, 205–6.
[4] Hannah Lewis, Deaf Liberation Theology. New York: Ashgate Publishing, 2016, 97
[5] Lewis, Deaf Liberation Theology, 79
[6]Christopher Griffiths, ‘The deaf child – His problems and education’ in Church Mission to the Deaf and Dumb of Walsall’, (Wednesbury and Mid-Staffordshire, Annual Report, no. 76, 1963).
[7] Aude de Saint-Loup, de Saint-Loup, A. (1996). A History of Misunderstandings: The History of the Deaf. Diogenes, 44(175), 1–25. doi: 10.1177/039219219604417502, 390
[8] Rosamund Oates, ‘Speaking in Hands’, 8
[9] John Bulwer, Philocophus: or, The Deafe and Dumbe Mans Friend (London, 1648)
[10] Rosamund Oates, ‘Speaking in Hands’,
[11] Lewis, Deaf Liberation Theology, p115
[12] Behenna, Gill, Baby Sheep on King’s Big Chair? (or… Lamb of God on the Throne) Sign Language Interpreting in Christian Settings. Signs of God accessed April 13, 2023, 2
[13] Roddy Hamilton, Epiclesis: A Way of Life, Theology in Scotland, vol, XV, no2 (2008)
[14] Morris, Wayne, Theology without Words. (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing), 2008, 120
[15] Church of Scotland, Together at the Table. (Edinburgh, 2020), 15
[16] Church of Scotland Act V 2000 CONSOLIDATING ACT ANENT THE SACRAMENTS (AS AMENDED BY ACT IX 2003), Edinburgh, 20th May 2000, Session 1
[17] Eucharistic Prayer for the Deaf, Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales, May 23, 1992
[18] Eucharistic Prayer for the Deaf Notes, Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales, May 23, 1992
[19] Paul Nimmo, The Eucharist in post-Reformation Scotland: A theological tale of harmony and diversity, (King’s College, University of Aberdeen)
[20] Roddy Hamilton, Communion: Beyond Common Order, Minister at Abbotsford Church, Clydebank